Vesting clause Article 2 Section 1 of the Constitution which states that all executive power resides with the President.

Veto message That note explaining the objections of the President to a proposed piece of legislation. The President must veto the whole bill and return it to the chamber that first considered it within ten working days.

Vice President The deputy to the President and the person who is (quite literally!) a heartbeat away from becoming Head of State. A good veep pick often adds a few points to a campaign, whereas a bad choice will often subtract to the same degree. Moreover, the importance of the role of Vice President has grown in recent years to the extent that he is now the epitome of the Washington insider (notably Gore, Cheney and Biden). Al Gore was given a significant role during the NAFTA negotiations and Dick Cheney was described as “an imperial Vice President.” The Vice President also serves (and is referred to) as President of the Senate, but a Senator is selected to serve as president pro tempore of the upper chamber. The veep is important in other ways too. For instance, he provides experience/expertise to the administration and helps to balance the ticket during the campaign. He can stand in for the President, acts as something of a cheerleader for unpopular policies and can even be an ‘attack dog’ for the administration. All this suggests his importance goes beyond taking responsibility for specific areas of policy and liaising with Congress. However, John Garner is widely believed to have described the post of Vice President as “not worth a bucket of warm spit” and Hubert Humphrey compared it to “being naked in the middle of a blizzard with no one to even offer you a match to keep you warm.”

Vietnam syndrome The deep-seated reluctance of the United States to engage in unilateral military action since their defeat in the Vietnam War. When sending troops abroad Congress often seeks assurances from the President concerning aims, cost (both financial and human) and exit strategy. For his part the President seeks to forge alliances with Congress, other countries and international organizations. Since the US experienced defeat at the hands of the Communists in Vietnam successive Presidents have found it more difficult to persuade the public as to the merits of overseas military involvement. Vietnam left a considerable scar on the conscience of the nation and those who have occupied the White House since the mid-1970s have had to deal with the consequences. America lost much of its moral certainty over Vietnam, a certainty that George W. Bush tried to recapture in the war against terror.

Virginia Plan A scheme proposed by the larger states during the Constitutional Convention in which representation within Congress was based on population. The plan also included a variety of other proposals to strengthen the federal government.

Vision thing Where the President is expected to promote an image or goal of a better America (or even a better world). The phrase is associated with George Bush senior who was criticized for lacking the vision thing, a point he readily acknowledged himself. A coherent vision can inspire supporters and give a sense of direction to a presidency.

Voting cues Items of information about a political candidate that are readily available, easy to interpret and lead a citizen to decide to vote for a particular candidate. They may derive from keynote speeches on important issues.

Umbrella group A pressure group that brings together a number of other groups under a common label.

Under-vote Casting a ballot that is either incomplete or cannot be counted.

Unfunded mandates Federal laws that require the states to implement certain policies but fail to provide state governments with sufficient funding to implement those policies.

Ungoverned space A term used by policy-makers and academics to describe a region of the world in which lawlessness reigns and good governance is all but impossible. They are often failed states.

Unified government A situation in which one party holds a majority of seats in the House and Senate and the President is a member of that same party. United government may also be used.

Unilateral action (international) Independent acts of foreign policy undertaken by a state without the assistance of other states. Since Vietnam, the US has been far less willing to take unilateral action.

Unilateral action (presidential) Any policy decision made and acted upon by the President and his staff without the approval of Congress. Such decisions may occur without consultation with the legislative branch.

Unitary executive theory A theory which stipulates that the President controls the entire executive branch of government as based upon Article 2 of the Constitution. In essence, it is the notion that the vesting clause of the Constitution gives the Head of State the authority to issue orders and policy directives that cannot be undone by Congress. Supreme Court justice Samuel Alito is rumored to support the unitary executive theory. Critics however claim that it represents a blueprint for an imperial presidency.

United Nations (UN) An international organization made up of representatives from around the world with a mission to promote peace and cooperation, uphold international law, and provide humanitarian aid. Right-wing Republicans are highly critical of the UN.

United States Trade Representative (USTR) An agency founded in order to negotiate with foreign governments to create trade agreements, resolve disputes and participate in global trade policy organizations. In accordance with our system of checks and balances, the Senate can refuse to sign a Treaty negotiated by the USTR.

Universalism The informal congressional norm of distributing the benefits of legislation in a way that serves the interests of as many states and districts as possible. One of the common examples is a road building program which can incorporate a number of districts/states.

Taking the late train An interest group strategy for gaining access to future officeholders that involves donating money to the winning candidate. Rather than offer support early on, it can be advantageous to wait until an obvious winner emerges.

Talent primary Candidates’ attempts to recruit well-respected consultants and campaign staff prior to the first primaries and caucuses. A candidate’s ability to recruit a prestigious campaign team is often considered indicative of his or her electoral prospects.

Tax Freedom Day That day when we stop working for the government and start working for ourselves.  States such as Mississippi and Louisiana have passed  their own Tax Freedom Day.

Term limits Attempts made to limit the time which a politician may serve in his/her post. In 2009 the Republican Senator Jim DeMint proposed term limits for members of Congress but the proposal failed to gain sufficient support. There have also been attempts to overturn the two-term limit for the President, but none have ever been successful. It seems unlikely that any such proposal would be successful as it would require professional politicians to willingly place a constraint upon their power. Politicians seek to acquire power and they rarely relinquish power voluntarily, even if they pay lip-service to the problem at election time.

Terrorism Described by the Department of Defense as the unlawful use of – or threatened use of – violence against individuals, or property to coerce or intimidate governments and societies, often to achieve political, religious or ideological objectives. Terrorism can be applied as a label to several political movements. As with crime, the fear of terrorism is much greater than the impact of terrorism itself.

The Tea Party A libertarian movement closely aligned to the Republican Party. The Tea party is a congressional caucus group who perceive themselves as patriots against the unconstitutional encroachment of a socialist government. Whilst the Tea party certainly exerts pressure upon politicians, they are not a pressure group in the technical sense of the phrase. As well as being a reference to the famous revolt against the British at Boston, the acronym ‘TEA’ stands for Taxed Enough Already. Critics claim that the Tea party stance is obstructionist rather than one offering a message of hope.

Third Way A theory which aims to modify conventional notions of social democracy towards the realities of the modern world. The third way recognizes that society is basically individualist, but that we also have a wider obligation to others. Crucial to this way of thinking is the concept of active citizenship and a desire to strengthen community values. The third way is keen to stress a reciprocal relationship between the individual and society as a whole. The third way is associated with new Democrats, although the term has fallen out of favor since the 1990s.

Toleration A willingness to accept opinions and lifestyles that differ from the wider norms and values of a society. The term is associated with a social liberal perspective. Tolerance does not necessarily mean approval, merely acceptance of alternatives. In the United States, the issue of tolerance has an obvious resonance to the issue of gay (or same-sex) marriage.

Trade agreement A contract between nations that specifies tariff levels and sets terms on which goods can be imported and exported. The result may be due to the donations that candidate received. It can be bi-lateral or multi-lateral.

Trade association An interest group composed of companies in the same business or industry that lobbies for policies that will benefit members of the group. Some trade associations can be highly influential pressure groups.

Treasury Department A cabinet agency that is responsible for managing the federal government’s revenue. It prints currency, collects taxes and sells government bonds.

Treaty A formal written agreement between nations involving security, trade, economic development or human rights. Ratification of a Treaty is subject to checks and balances.

Trustee A member of Congress who represents constituents’ interests whilst also taking into account national, collective, and moral concerns that sometimes cause the member to vote against the preference of a majority of constituents.

Turkey farms Agencies where campaign workers and donors are often appointed to reward them for their service because it is unlikely that their lack of qualifications will lead to bad policy.

Turnout A measure of the degree to which those registered to vote actually cast their vote. It is usually measured as a percentage of the voting age population, although it can be expressed as an aggregate. For example, voter turnout increased by over 5 million during the 2008 presidential election. Turnout figures are not wholly accurate because of problems with registration and polling in certain constituencies. Turnout is usually higher when voters perceive there to be a genuine contest at stake. Turnout is also higher during a presidential election than an electoral contest for the House of Representatives. This may be explained by the voter context model of voting behaviour.

Sample That group of people surveyed in order to gauge popular opinion. Researchers use samples because it would be impossible to interview the entire population.

Sampling error A calculation that describes what percentage of the people surveyed may not accurately represent the population being studied. All representative samples contain a sampling error of some kind.

Scopes trial A famous case study of the role of religion and the rights of states. Scopes was a Tennessee teacher who was prosecuted for violating a state law that forbade teaching of Darwinism. The case gained nationwide attention, and although John Scopes was found guilty, the verdict was overturned on appeal.

Scrutiny The means by which the executive is held to account, usually by the legislature. This is an important aspect of a liberal democracy such as the US. Famous examples include the Fulbright committee into Vietnam and the Levin committee into the war on terror. However, no figure exemplifies the observation that scrutiny can make or break a career more than Richard Nixon. His work on the House Committee on Un-American Activities in exposing Alger Hiss (who had served in FDR’s administration) as a former member of the American Communist Party established Nixon as a rising star within the Republican Party. When he later became President, congressional scrutiny into Watergate effectively ended his occupancy of the White House.

Seat shift A change in the number of seats held by Republicans and Democrats in the House or Senate. This may result in one party taking control from the other (as in 2010 when the GOP beat the Democrats for control of the lower chamber).

Select committees Those committees in the House or Senate created to address a specific issue for one or two terms. The main work of Congress occurs in committees.

Selective incentives Benefits that can motivate participation in a group effort because they are available only to those who participate, such as member services offered by interest groups.

Selective incorporation The process through which the civil liberties granted in the Bill of Rights were applied to the states on a case-by case basis through the fourteenth amendment.

Senatorial courtesy Where a President confers with a Senator before he makes a nomination to fill a vacancy for a federal office affecting that state. This is a norm in the nomination of district court judges in which the president consults with his party’s senators from the relevant state in choosing the nominee.

Seniority The informal congressional norm of choosing the member who has served the longest on a particular committee to be the committee chair. It is hard to get things done in DC without some level of seniority, or support from senior members. Powerful figures on the Hill often claim to speak on behalf of a wide number of congressmen.

Separate but equal The idea that racial segregation was acceptable as long as the separate facilities were of equal quality. This was supported by Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) but struck down by Brown v. Board of Education (1954).

Separation of powers Where each branch of government is independent of the other and no-one can be a member of more than one branch at the same time. In the US, the separation of powers also entails the separation of personnel. Amongst the founding fathers, Thomas Jefferson was an instrumental figure behind the separation of powers. The separation of powers is deeply reflective of liberal values. Richard Neustadt once observed that the American system entails “separated institutions, sharing powers.” This is a much more accurate and useful depiction; although it is less widely used.

Sexism Negative or hostile attitudes expressed towards a particular gender. Feminists seek to liberate women from the boundaries imposed by a sexist society. Some populist figures on the right such as Ann Coulter and Rush Limbaugh claim that feminists (or ‘feminazis’) have gone too far.

Shield laws Legislation, which exists in some states but not at the federal level that gives reporters the right to refuse to name the source(s) of their information.

Shuttle diplomacy Negotiations carried out by a third party mediator who travels between two nations to relay information when those two nations’ negotiators refuse to meet face-to-face. This may be the result of a political/ideological conflict.

Signing statements Those statements put forward by the President in which he outlines his understanding of the legislation, and by implication suggests how the executive branch should implement it. Signing statements are usually published at the same time as the President signs a bill into law. Members of Congress sometimes view such statements as an attempt by the President to undermine the authority of the legislative assembly. The document often differs from the interpretation offered by Congress, and may be seen as an attempt to influence how the law will be implemented.

Single-issue groups A type of pressure group that has a narrowly focused goal, seeking change on a single topic or piece of legislation.

Single-member districts An electoral system in which every elected official represents a geographically defined area, such as a state or congressional district, and each area elects one representative. Single-member districts are associated with majoritarian voting systems.

Slander Spoken false statements that damage a person’s reputation. Such statements can be regulated by the government but are often difficult to distinguish from permissible speech.

Slant The imbalance in a story that covers one candidate or policy favorably without providing similar coverage of the other side. The term should be considered alongside that of media bias.

Social class Social stratification upon the basis of occupation. Categorizations often used include the underclass, the working class, the middle class and the upper class. Some cities exemplify this division in a very distinct manner, such as New York City and Los Angeles. However, it is probably accurate to state that American society is divided more by race than social class. Society is balkanized along ethnic lines in which one can clearly observe the separation of black/white/Hispanic neighborhoods. Gated communities, ghettos and a propensity to marry within one’s own community are also of relevance here.

Social justice Those attempts made to address the problem of social exclusion and inequality within society. Those on the left are particularly keen to advance this concept, although social justice is by no means limited to the socialist perspective.

Social policy An area of public policy related to maintaining or enhancing the well-being of individuals.

Social security A federal insurance program that provides benefits to retirees based on payroll taxes they have paid over the course of their careers. It is a ‘pay as you go’ system in which working Americans pay taxes to support today’s retirees, with a promise that when today’s workers retire, their benefits will be paid by the next generation. Social security could be seen as an illustration of the Burkean social contract between one generation and the next.

Socialism An ideology on the left of the political spectrum in which equality is prized as the most important objective within society. Socialism could be considered un-American; both historically and in a more narrow ideological sense of Hofstadter’s famous observation. Socialism places equality above liberty, principally equality of outcome; whereas the American Dream is based upon the notion of equality of opportunity. Socialism is therefore incompatible with the idea(l) of America itself.

Soft money Those donations given to politicians for campaign expenses. It is widely seen to be the focus of fraud within American politics, with some critics having described it as a form of legalized bribery. Hard money however goes directly to a candidate of a political party and is regulated by the Federal Election Commission. Of the two, it is soft money which has generated the most controversy. Soft money can be used for voter mobilization or to promote a policy proposal or point of view provided those efforts are not tied to supporting or opposing a candidate. It should also be noted that presidential campaigns are subject to stricter regulation than congressional campaigns.

Soft news Media coverage that aims to entertain or shock, often through sensationalized reporting or by focusing on a candidate or politician’s personality. Many informed commentators claim that the media has become more and more interested in soft news.

Solicitor General A presidential appointee in the Department of Justice who represents the federal government. The Solicitor General is therefore the ‘face’ of the federal government in a court case. Elena Kagan was Solicitor General before accepting a post on the Supreme Court.

Solidary benefits That satisfaction derived from the experience of working with like-minded people, even if the group’s efforts do not achieve the desired impact. This is one reason why people join a pressure group.

Speaker of the House The leader of the House and one tasked with a number of roles such as that of presiding officer, unofficial leader of the majority party and the representative role of an elected member of the lower chamber. The Speaker of the House is third in line to succeed the President after the Vice President. He can be subject to disciplinary procedures, as in the case of Newt Gingrich in the late-1990s. Unlike the Speaker in the British House of Commons, he/she is a partisan player rather than a neutral umpire.

Special needs doctrine Established by a ruling made by the Supreme Court, it enables the official authorities without a warrant to circumvent the fourth amendment where the public are in danger. It therefore places majority rights above those of the individual. It can apply to a range of circumstances from airport screening to dealing with suspected terrorists. The special needs doctrine has gained greater prominence during the war against terror.

Specialization The expertise of a member of Congress on a specific issue or area of policy (such as finance, health care, etc.). Specialization is more common in the House than the Senate.

Split-ticket Where voters divide their support between the two main parties. Americans are well used to the notion of checks and balances, and may therefore perceive there to be a virtue in the inevitable consequences of split-ticket voting (such as divided government).

Spoils system A system by which government jobs are awarded to political supporters rather than solely on the basis of merit. The term derives from the phrase “to the victor belong the spoils.” It can also be applied to rewarding party supporters.

Standard operating procedures Rules that lower-level bureaucrats must follow when implementing policies.

Standing committees Those committees that are a permanent part of the House or Senate structure, holding more importance and authority than other committees.

Stare decisis A legal principle in which judges are obliged to follow the precedent that has already been established. This is an important legal convention.

State capacity The knowledge, personnel and institutions that the government requires in order to effectively implement its policies.

State of the Union address The President’s annual address to Congress in which he outlines his legislative agenda and policy platform. The State of the Union address is the only time the President is allowed to enter the legislative chamber. It is one of the highlights of the American political calendar and is delivered in front of each member of Congress, the Cabinet, the Supreme Court and a viewing audience of millions. The name derives from Article 2 Section 3 of the Constitution.

States’ rights Those rights held by state governments. On the basis of federalism the states hold certain rights in return for honoring their responsibility to recognize the laws of other states and those derived from the federal government. The trend within the contemporary era has been to strengthen the rights of states and thereby curtail the role of federal government. Republicans have been particularly keen to champion states’ rights. Having said this, Republicans have also sought to strengthen federal government in order to deal with the threat of terrorism (e.g. creating the Department of Homeland Security as a response to 9/11). Those who champion states’ right claim that the states should be entitled to a certain amount of self-government free from intervention by the federal government. As conservatives are wont to claim; it was the states that created the federal government. Moreover, the Constitution declares that those powers not held by the federal level are held by the states.

States’ sovereign immunity The notion that state governments cannot be sued in federal court. It therefore offers protection for the tenth amendment.

Statutory authority (presidential) Powers derived from laws enacted by Congress that add to the powers already given to the President in the Constitution.

Statutory interpretation The various methods and tests used by the courts for determining the meaning of a law and applying it to specific situations. The manner in which laws are interpreted is of major political significance.

Straight ticket A ballot on which a voter selects candidates from only one political party. Straight ticket voting is also known as straight party voting.

Street-level bureaucrats Agency employees who directly provide services to the public. Examples include police officers and those who provide welfare services.

Strict construction A way of interpreting the Constitution based on its language alone. Conservatives tend to favor this approach.

Strict scrutiny standard The highest level of scrutiny the courts use when determining whether unequal treatment is justified by the effect of a law. It is applied in all cases involving race. A law that discriminates based on race must be shown to serve some compelling interest in order to be upheld by the courts.

Stupak amendment Where abortions are prevented from being funded by private insurers. The majority of women who have an abortion pay for it privately.

Substantive due process doctrine One interpretation of the due process clause; in this view the Supreme Court has the power to overturn laws that infringe on individual liberties.

Substantive representation When a member of Congress represents constituents’ interests and policy concerns.

Sunshine rules A reference to those changes instigated during the 1970s in order that Congress cast greater light upon its work. The impact of these changes has been largely welcomed because politicians working in secret may well act in an undemocratic manner. Compared to other legislatures, Congress exhibits a relatively high level of openness to the public and the media. However, some of its work occurs behind closed doors.

Super Tuesday That day when a number of states hold their presidential primaries. Super Tuesday tends to involve southern states in which voters are more conservative than the rest of the country. Super Tuesday is one of the key events within the race for the presidential nomination. The contest is often effectively over after Super Tuesday. Terms such as Super-Duper Tuesday and Tsunami Tuesday may also be used.

Super-delegates Members of Congress and party officials selected by their colleagues to be delegates at the party’s presidential nominating convention. Unlike delegates selected in primaries or caucuses, super-delegates are not committed to a particular candidate and can exercise their judgment when deciding how to vote at the convention.

Supermajority The existence of sufficient support within Congress for a party to get their policies through. It does not refer to an actual figure, but around 60% of that particular chamber of Congress is usually considered sufficient. The term means something very different in the context of a constitutional amendment.

Supreme Court The highest court in the land whose role is to interpret and uphold the Constitution. The Supreme Court is independent of the other two branches of government and is located on the northwest corner of Capitol Hill and sits just across the road from Congress. There are nine judges who preside over hearings in the Supreme Court. The current Chief Justice (John Roberts) is a conservative figure and has sought to reduce the number of cases heard by the Court. The President nominates judges but the Senate can reject his nomination. The process is highly politicized. When hearing a case, the Supreme Court will publish a report outlining the reasons for their decision. A report outlining the minority position may also be published. Article 3 Section 1 of the Constitution places judicial power into the one federal court in the land. Below the Supreme Court are 13 Courts of Appeals (known as Circuit Courts). The majority of federal cases begin in the district courts.

Suspension of the rules One way of moving a piece of legislation to the top of the agenda in the House. Debate on the bill is limited, amendments are not allowed and the bill must pass by a two-thirds vote.

Swing states Those states in which both major party candidates stand a good chance of winning (such as Ohio). The term may be contrasted with safe states.

Racism A negative and hostile view of an individual/group based on racial prejudice leading to abusive and aggressive actions. The aim of affirmative action in regards to ethnic minorities is to counter the effects of racism within society. Race has long been a divisive issue within American society.

Raiders Supporters of an opposing party who participate in an open primary in order to keep a weak candidate in the race.

Random digit dialing A method of random sampling used in telephone surveys, in which the interviewers call respondents by dialing random telephone numbers in order to include those with unlisted numbers. This is to ensure a truly representative sample is considered.

Random sample Those chosen to participate in a survey through a selection process in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen. This kind of sampling improves the accuracy of public opinion data.

Ranked choice voting Otherwise known as the Alternative Vote outside of America, this electoral method is used in some mayoral contests. The term instant runoff voting may also be used.

Reaganomics A set of economic policies associated with Ronald Reagan. Like Thatcherism in the UK, Reaganomics was the name given to those policies shaped by the New Right such as de-regulation, privatization and the promotion of a flexible labor force. Reaganomics changed the political agenda within the United States and had a major impact upon new Democrats.

Re-alignment A change in the size or composition of the party coalitions or in the nature of the issues that divide the parties. Re-alignments typically occur within an election cycle or two, but they can also occur gradually over the course of a decade or longer.

Realism The idea that a country’s foreign policy decisions are motivated by self-interest and the goal of gaining more power.

Reasonable basis test The use of evidence to suggest that differences in the behavior of two groups can rationalize unequal treatment of these groups.

Reasonable vote A vote that is likely to be consistent with the voter’s true preference about the candidates. The term may be contrasted with tactical voting.

Recall election A procedure that enables voters in a state to remove an elected official from office before their term has expired. They are only permissible in certain states, and can be difficult to push through due to a number of legal and practical barriers. As such, they are something of a blunt instrument in terms of ensuring that those in power are held to account. However, even the prospect of a recall election may lead to a more responsive approach from elected representatives. The true significance of a recall election might therefore be in its potential threat. Whilst recall elections are rarely used, they do serve to heighten the level of democratic accountability within the United States.

Recess appointments Where the President can make an appointment to a branch of government (including the Supreme Court) without the immediate consent of the Senate. This applies to only a small number of cases. As the term clearly implies, it can only be done when Congress is in recess. However, the Senate must eventually approve of the appointment. One example would be the position of Ambassador.

Reciprocity The informal congressional norm whereby a member votes for a bill that he might not otherwise support because a colleague strongly favors it—in exchange for the colleague’s vote for a bill that the member feels strongly about.

Redistributive tax policies Those policies by which taxation is used to attempt to create greater social equality or some form of social justice.

Re-districting Redrawing the geographic boundaries of legislative districts.

Referendum A direct vote by citizens on a policy change proposed by a legislature or another government body. While referenda are common in state and local elections, there is no mechanism for a national-level referendum. It is possible to hold a non-binding referendum (as in the case of Puerto Rico in 2012).

Regional primaries A practice whereby several states in the same area of the country hold presidential primaries or caucuses on the same day.

Regressive taxation A term describing taxes that take a larger share of poor people’s income than wealthy people’s income. Examples include a sales tax and a payroll tax. The term may be contrasted with progressive taxation.

Regulation State intervention in the economy for the purpose of minimizing the impact of market failure. After decades of de-regulation, Obama has managed to tighten up regulation of Wall Street in response to the credit crunch.

Regulatory capture A situation in which a regulatory agency created to act in the public interest acts in favor of the commercial/special interests that dominate in the industry (or sector) it is charged with regulating. It is sometimes known as agency capture.

Religious right Those figures and pressure groups campaigning over a wide range of issues ranging from stem-cell research to creationist teaching within schools. The religious right seeks to mix religious fervor with a political message. The religious right calls itself the pro-family movement and provides the bedrock of ‘values voters’ – a vitally important constituency for the Republican Party. It also enables the GOP to reach out beyond their natural constituency. For instance, a number of Catholic voters were drawn to the Christian message promoted by George W. Bush. The religious right plays a prominent role within American politics. Churches will publish the voting record and speeches of political candidates and instruct their followers to vote a certain way. The religious right seeks to promote religious prayer in state schools and is passionately opposed to abortion.

Remedial legislation National laws that address discriminatory state laws. Authority for such legislation comes from the fourteenth amendment.

Republican democracy A form of government in which the interests of the people are represented through elected leaders. The US could be described as a republican democracy.

Republican Party A broadly conservative political party and one of the two main parties. Their voters are (stereo)typically male, live in rural areas, are regular church-goers, wealthy, white and elderly. A Republican usually adopts a pro-life, pro-gun stance with a preference for traditional values.

Republicanism The belief that a form of government in which the interests of the people are represented through elected leaders is the best form of government.

Resemblance theory The notion that those in the legislature should be typical of the communities they serve. In doing so, it is claimed they can more fully reflect their constituents. Having said this, members of the legislature can be effective representatives without being socially representative.

Reserved powers Those powers retained by a particular level of government. For instance, the tenth amendment relates to those powers reserved for the states.

Responsible parties A system in which candidates campaign on the party platform, work together in office to implement the platform, and are judged by voters based on whether they achieve the platform’s objectives. Given the weak nature of party labels, this is rarely applied in the states.

Retail politics A mode of campaigning in which a candidate or campaign staff contact citizens directly. This may occur during a rally or a talk beforehand to a small group. It may even entail a one-on-one meeting between a candidate and a citizen.

Retrospective evaluation A citizen’s judgment of an officeholder’s job performance since the last election. This may well be based upon their financial position.

Revenue neutral Where a scheme or proposal raises no more in taxation than is raised under the present situation.

Revolving door syndrome Where former members of Congress (or the executive) take up well-paid jobs within lobby groups based in K Street, Washington DC. Their contacts and expertise are used in order to benefit that particular lobby group. Former members of Congress (and the executive) can often gain more money from being lobbyists than they ever could as elected representatives. The very phrase refers to the fact that one door closes whilst another door opens.

Riders An attachment to a proposed piece of legislation. The use of riders is customary within Congress and there are no limitations on their use. Riders are more effective when attached to an important bill because to veto or postpone such a bill would delay funding to government programs. The President must accept those riders or reject the bill entirely. The use of riders is often viewed negatively by the public as an example of congressional misuse of taxpayers’ money.

Rights An entitlement held by an individual/group and one related to the idea of responsibilities or duties. For example the right to life involves a duty (or responsibility) not to take away another person’s right to life. If you do end someone’s life, you will have your rights and freedoms taken away. Many (though by no means all) states implement the death penalty. There are many different types of rights to consider within political discourse such as positive rights, legal rights, negative rights and moral rights.

Robo-poll A type of survey in which a computer program, rather than a live questioner, interviews respondents by telephone.

Rogue electors A member of the Electoral College who fails to cast his/her vote for the candidate they were pledged to elect. They are also known as a faithless elector. For example, in the year 2000 Barbara Lett-Simmons abstained rather than give the Democrat candidate Al Gore the Electoral College votes of Washington DC.

Roll call A recorded vote on legislation. Congressional members may vote yes, no, abstain or present. The latter is used to evade an unpopular choice, rather than targeted by interest groups for saying no.

Rotunda A place located directly below the dome of Congress which connects the two chambers. In the rotunda various members of Congress might engage in informal contact with constituents, the press and each other. It can also be used for ceremonial occasions of national significance.

Paradox of voting The question of why citizens vote even though their individual choice stands little chance of changing the election outcome. The paradox of voting bears relevance to the phenomenon of safe seats.

Partisan de-alignment Where voters lose their sense of attachment to a particular party. The term may be related to class de-alignment. It reflects a weakening of the party identification model of voting behavior. One reason for partisan de-alignment is the increased importance of ‘check-book’ voting, in which the state of the economy plays a key role.

Party coalitions Those groups who identify with a political party, usually described in demographic terms.

Party identification A citizen’s loyalty to a specific political party. Partisan de-alignment reflects a decline in party identification.

Party in government The group of office holders who belong to a specific political party and were elected as candidates of that party.

Party in power Under unified government, the party that controls the House, Senate, and the presidency. Under divided government, it is usually the President’s party.

Party in the electorate The group of citizens who identify with a specific political party. Angus Campbell and others (1980) argued that partisanship serves as a filter. A partisan therefore filters out facts inconsistent with the party’s worldview, and exaggerates those facts which would appear to confirm it.

Party organization A specific political party’s leaders and workers at the national, state, and local levels.

Party platform A set of objectives outlining the party’s issue positions and priorities—although candidates are not required to support their party’s platform. A platform is not a manifesto in the traditional sense of the term.

Party ratio The proportions of seats in the House and Senate that are controlled by each major party.

Party unity The extent to which members of Congress in the same party vote together on party votes. This may be influenced by the level of ideological polarization within the nation’s legislature.

Party votes A vote in which the majority of one party opposes the position of the majority of the other party.

Patriotism Love for one’s country. As is widely known, Americans have a strong sense of patriotism. Each day begins in American schools with children facing the flag and reciting the pledge of allegiance (“I pledge allegiance to the flag of the United States of America and to the Republic for which it stands, one nation, under God, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all”). Many people raise the flag outside their homes and there is of course a Flag Day.

Peanut butter politics The method of spreading government money around from one state/district to the next. The term is used in a pejorative sense to imply government waste and pork-barrel politics.

Permanent campaign The actions officeholders take throughout the election cycle to build support for their re-election. The term holds more relevance for those elected to the House as opposed to the upper chamber.

Permissive federalism Where the states are permitted to exercise those powers which the national government permits them to exercise. It is usually associated with a unitary system of governance.

Philadelphia convention The convention held from May to September 1787 that framed our Constitution. The delegates decided to replace the Articles of Confederation with a codified constitution for the new Republic. The need for a new constitution derived from the need for a stronger system. The Philadelphia convention was presided over by George Washington.

Phone banks Groups of organized supporters who contact likely voters by phone to encourage electoral support for their party or candidate.

Picket fence federalism A form of cooperative federalism in which policy-makers within a particular policy area work together across multiple levels of government.

Plebiscitary president One who rules through aggressive assertions of executive independence, direct appeals to the public via the media and active manipulation of public opinion. This kind of presidency lays specific emphasis on the rhetorical prowess of the individual sitting in or seeking the office. A leading illustration would be George W. Bush, principally in the context of post-9/11. The term does not hold the same level of currency as the imperial-imperiled debate.

Pluralism Where a variety of beliefs, demands and interests are permitted to flourish together. Pluralism is a key concept within a liberal democracy. The United States has a relatively pluralist political system with numerous points of influence. Pressure groups therefore operate at all levels of government – federal, state and local – and are able to influence all three branches of government. In a pluralist society pressure groups should be able to perform their proper role unfettered by the government. However, even in the US some pressure groups are subject to constraint. This might be due to the extremist stance adopted by that particular group.

Plurality voting A voting system in which the candidate who receives the most votes within a geographic area wins the election, regardless of whether that candidates wins over half the votes.

Pocket veto The automatic death of a bill passed by Congress when the President fails to sign the bill in the last ten days of a legislative session. A veto can be overridden by a two-thirds vote in both the House and Senate.

Polarized A term describing the alignment of both parties’ members with their own party’s issues and priorities, with little cross-over support for the other party’s goals.

Police patrol oversight A method of oversight in which members of Congress constantly monitor the bureaucracy to make sure that laws are implemented correctly.

Policy agenda The set of desired policies that political leaders view as their top priorities.

Policy incubators Where a particular locale or state conducts an experiment into a particular law or policy. This is one of the alleged benefits of a federalist system and can range from legalizing marijuana to holding an amnesty on guns in which people can hand over weapons to their local police officer. If the law or policy is successful, it may well spread throughout the union.

Policy mood The level of public support for expanding the government’s role in society; whether the public wants government action on a specific issue.

Political Action Committees (PACs) Political groups that collect money from their members in order to fund candidates and parties who advance/defend their particular interests. The purpose of a PAC is simply to raise campaign funds. There are strict limits set upon how much money can be raised by an individual PAC. Some states also have limits on how much a PAC can give to a candidate. However, there is no limit to the number of PACs that can support a candidate. As such, candidates can gain the support of several PACs and in doing so raise a great deal of campaign finance.

Political appointees People appointed by an elected leader, such as the President, to hold a government position. Political appointments in the states are based on the spoils system.

Political business cycle Attempts by elected officials to manipulate the economy, increasing economic growth and reducing unemployment and inflation around election time. This can only be achieved via manipulation of fiscal policy. Monetary policy is set by an independent central bank.

Political culture Those norms and values that predominate within a particular society. Political culture in the US emphasizes democracy and public participation within the political process (Almond and Verba, 1963 and 1980). It is focused upon individualism, liberty, limited government and the American Dream. In addition, political culture differs greatly from the liberal North East/Pacific Coast to the more conservative southern states (notably the Bible Belt).

Political honeymoon The period in which the political capital of the newly-elected President is at its greatest. The first one hundred days is often seen as the President’s political honeymoon. This is when the President sets the tone of his administration. However, one could argue that the three months or so before the President is sworn in holds greater significance. In the case of Obama a wide number of presidential-level decisions were decided upon before he became Head of State. The future course of a presidency can be determined to a very significant degree by decisions and events that lie outside of his control.

Political machine An unofficial patronage system within a political party that seeks to gain political power and government contracts, jobs and other benefits for party workers and supporters. This can of course lead to corruption.

Political socialization The means by which we acquire political beliefs and attitudes. Agents of socialization include the family, religion, peer groups, the media and education. An understanding of political socialization is relevant towards the whole area of voting behavior.

Popular sovereignty Where the people hold ultimate authority and the political system enables the demos to elect representatives to act on their behalf. In the US, the political system is based upon constitutional sovereignty.  However, it could also be argued that sovereignty lies with the people. This point is particularly relevant in the context of an election. It also applies in an indirect manner via their elected representatives.

Popular vote The votes cast by citizens in an election. It is possible for a presidential candidate to win the popular vote but lose the EC vote.

Pork-barrel politics A reference to a situation in which members of Congress seek federal funds in order to please their constituents. This is motivated by self-interest, in that it enables incumbents to secure re-election. The term has a negative connotation.

Position taking Any public statement in which a politician makes their views known on an issue of public interest. Pressure groups will seek to highlight these positions in order to attract or deter potential voters.

Positive rights Those rights than enable an individual to actually do something, such as the right to bear arms as laid down in the second amendment. The term is linked to the concept of positive liberty.

Poverty trap Where families and individuals find it difficult to escape a life of poverty due to a lack of life chances, prejudice within society or the welfare system itself. Millions of Americans are affected by the poverty trap despite the prevalent myth that anyone can make it in the land of opportunity.

Power of the purse The constitutional power of Congress to raise and spend money. Congress can use this power as a check upon the executive.

Precedent A legal norm established in court cases that is then applied to future cases dealing with the same legal questions. Precedent derives from a test case.

President of the United States The Head of State, the chief diplomat, the chief legislator and the commander-in-chief of the US military. The President must be a natural-born American citizen. He must also be over thirty-five years old and meet the residency qualification of fourteen years.

President pro tempore A largely symbolic position usually held by the most senior member of the majority party in the Senate. The President of the Senate is the vice-president.

Presidential approval The percentage of Americans who feel that the president is doing a good job in office.

Presidential caucuses A series of meetings designed to appoint that party’s candidate. Caucuses are attended by a wholly unrepresentative sample of voters. Iowa for instance is more conservative – and more religious – than the average American state. It also gives voters in Iowa a massively disproportionate influence upon the contest for that party’s nomination (which in 2016 went to Hillary Clinton and Ted Cruz). There are far more primaries held than caucuses. Please be aware that some states use both. It is also worth noting that some states require voters to show ID, which can be a barrier towards the less well-off from voting.

Presidential legacy That which the President will be remembered for. His legacy is often determined in the realm of foreign policy, an arena in which he has much greater scope than he does in the domestic sphere. To take one example, George W. Bush’s legacy derives primarily from the actions of US troops in Iraq and Afghanistan.

Presidential primacy Where the President takes the dominant role over foreign policy. This may be based upon a number of factors, such as his constitutional powers and the need for quick decisions in the face of a threat to national security. The parochial character of Congress (particularly the House) is another factor.

Presidential primary A state-based election to choose a party’s candidate for the Head of State. A presidential primary is essentially an indirect election to decide the number of delegates from that particular state. Primaries take place for all levels of government, although the media focus tends to gravitate towards the race for the presidency. As they operate under state law a number of variations exist on the issue of timing, whether to allow participation via the Internet, what type of primary to hold and whether a voter is asked to declare their party affiliation. An incumbent President can even face a challenge from within his own party (as in the case of Gerald Ford in 1976 and Jimmy Carter in 1980). During the early primaries, the party base often flirts with their preferred candidate before shifting towards a moderate candidate capable of winning. Generally speaking, figures such as Rick Santorum (R) in 2012 and Howard Dean in 2004 (D) are eventually eclipsed by more electable candidates.

Press conference Events at which politicians speak to journalists and answer their questions afterward.

Prime time That time of the evening when the television audience is at its highest and networks often schedule news programs. Advertising during prime time requires a significant amount of dollars.

Priming The influence on the public’s general impressions of a candidate or issue caused by positive or negative coverage. For instance, Romney tried to neutralize some of the negatives associated with his brand during the 2012 campaign (such as his reputation as a flip-flopper and his links to venture capitalism).

Principal–agent game The interaction between a principal (like the President or Congress), who needs something done, and an agent (like a bureaucrat), who is responsible for carrying out the principal’s orders.

Prior restraint A limit on freedom of the press that allows the government to prohibit the media from publishing certain materials. This is usually on the basis of national security.

Privacy rights Liberties protected by several amendments in the Bill of Rights that shield certain personal aspects of citizens’ lives from governmental interference, such as the fourth amendment’s protection against unreasonable searches and seizures. Our right to privacy has been curtailed by the official authorities in order to deal with the threat of terrorism and crime.

Privatization The transfer of assets from the public sector to the private sector. This policy forms a key element of the New Right perspective. It has been a marked feature of the period defined by Richard Nixon and others as new federalism.

Privileges and immunities clause That part of the Constitution requiring states to treat non-state residents within their borders as they would treat their own residents. This is meant to promote commerce and travel between the various states.

Problem of control A difficulty faced by elected officials in ensuring that when bureaucrats implement policies, they follow these officials’ intentions but still have enough discretion to use their expertise. The problem of control is one of the major obstacles facing decision-makers in office.

Progressive taxation Those taxes that require upper-income people to pay a higher tax rate than lower-income people. Obvious examples include income tax and an estate tax.

Proportional allocation The practice of determining the number of convention delegates allotted to each candidate based on the percentage of the popular vote cast for each candidate.

Proportional primaries Where candidates must receive a minimum percentage of votes (usually a 15% threshold) in order to gain delegates. Most primaries are now proportional. In 2010 Oregon became the first American state in which a binding primary election was conducted solely via the Internet. The election in question concerned the Independent Party of Oregon; a minor party within the US.

Proposition A mechanism by which American citizens can vote on a change to the existing law. Not all states enable citizens to hold a proposition, and in those that do the legislature can override the proposition (except in California). States also have a sunset clause whereby the decision taken during a proposition is allowed to expire. Propositions enable states to act as a policy incubator, where successful ideas tend to spread throughout the nation.

Public choice theory A theory which stipulates that the various agents of the state pursue their own particular interests at the expense of the common good. This can result in a number of related problems including government overload and regulatory capture. Another problem is that members of the Cabinet ‘go native’ and simply become advocates for their particular departments. The solution often put forward is to treat the people who use public services as customers. Those institutions responsible for the delivery of public services should act like a business and thereby use taxpayers’ money in the most efficient manner possible. Public choice theory is located on the right of the political spectrum.

Public goods Services or actions (such as protecting the environment) that – once provided to one person – become available to everyone. Government is typically needed to provide public goods because they will be under-produced by the free market. The profit motive works against the provision of public goods.

Public opinion Citizens’ views on politics and government actions. A number of organizations collate public opinion and publish their findings.

Purposive benefits Satisfaction derived from the experience of working toward a desired policy goal, even if the goal is not achieved. This may explain why people join pressure groups and political parties.

Push polling A type of survey in which the questions are presented in a biased way in an attempt to influence the respondent. It is also known as a leading question.