Earmarks Those elements of a bill where legislators attach pork that favors their particular state/district. The attachment of such earmarks is a notable feature of the legislative process. It usually takes the form of additional spending or a tax break of some kind.

Echo chamber A reference to the legacy of former Presidents over the Supreme Court. Members have been appointed by Republican or Democrat Presidents and often reflect the political/philosophical influence of former Presidents. Changes in the composition of the Supreme Court take time, and a member of the Supreme Court might even stay on in his/her position until the election of a new President, such as John Paul Stevens who postponed his retirement until Obama was elected. This is to ensure that the newly-elected President can shift the SCOTUS to either the left or the right. Another point to be aware of is that the Supreme Court often lags behind the prevailing political mood within the country. From one perspective, a good appointment can in effect be the gift that keeps on giving.

Economic groups A type of interest group that seeks public policies that seek to provide monetary benefits to its members.

Economic individualism The autonomy of individuals to manage their own financial decisions without government interference. It reflects Horatio Alger’s famous description of the American Dream.

Elastic clause Under Article 1 Section 8 Congress has the power to make all necessary and proper laws. It has the name ‘elastic’ because it is open to a very wide interpretation. Politicians tend to make maximum use of so-called ‘wiggle room.’

Electoral College That body which formally elects the President. The electors that constitute the Electoral College are appointed specifically for that task. The College does not meet as a whole. Instead, the results are sent to Washington electronically. Once all the votes are in and the result is known, the incumbent Vice President certifies the result. Each state has a number of electors that roughly reflect their population size. These electors meet in their respective state capitals in December to cast their vote. Congress then meets to collate the results and declare the winner.

Electoral vote Votes cast by members of the Electoral College. After a presidential candidate wins the popular vote in a given state, that candidate’s slate of electors will cast electoral votes for the candidate on behalf of that state. There have of course been cases of faithless (or rogue) electors.

End of ideology A view which states that ideological conflict is no longer relevant within political discourse due to the victory of one particular ideology. The American political scientist Francis Fukuyama claims that since the end of the cold war era we have entered a stage of human history characterized by the victory of liberal democracy and capitalism.

Enlightenment A philosophical movement during the 17^th and 18^th century. The Enlightenment was a manifestation of liberal thought, primarily in terms of a secular-rational challenge to the status quo. The language of the US Constitution is reflective of the age of reason of this important historical epoch. Americans are arguably the true inheritors of the Enlightenment because we threw off the shackles of tradition, monarchy, feudalism and state-sponsored religion.

Entitlement Those federal government schemes that provide benefits to Americans who meet requirements specified by law (such as age or income).

Enumerated powers Those powers specified to Congress, the President or the Supreme Court in the first three Articles of the Constitution. The term may be contrasted with implied powers.

Equal time provision An FCC regulation requiring broadcast media to provide equal airtime on any non-news program to all candidates running for an office. Despite this regulation, third party candidates not receive fair coverage within the American media.

Equality Treating everyone on an equitable basis regardless of social background or other characteristics. There are various ways of categorizing equality including equality of opportunity, foundational equality, political equality, gender equality, equality of outcome and so on. In the context of ethnic minorities Democrats tend to favor affirmative action whereas Republicans believe that public policy should be color-blind on the basis of the ‘One Florida’ policy. Some Republicans perceive affirmative action to be un-American.

Establishment clause Part of the first amendment that states “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion,” which has been interpreted to mean that Congress cannot sponsor or favor any religion. It therefore ensures a separation between church and state.

Exclusionary rule The principle that illegally or unconstitutionally acquired evidence cannot be used in a criminal trial.

Executive agreement An agreement between the executive branch and a foreign government, which acts as a Treaty but does not require Senate approval. This enables the President to circumvent one of the congressional checks upon his power.

Executive Office of the President (EXOP) The top staff agencies in the White House. Their job is to offer help and advice in carrying out the major duties of his office including co-ordination, advice-giving and managing personnel. The EXOP is an umbrella term covering a number of institutions. The EXOP has grown in number and significance over time, and may well eclipse the role of the Cabinet. Please note that the acronym EOP may also be used.

Executive orders Proclamations made by the president that change government policy without congressional approval. Executive orders can be used by the President to circumvent an obstructionist Congress, as in the case of attempts by Barack Obama to make life easier for illegal immigrants.

Executive powers clause That part of the Constitution that states that executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States.

Executive privilege Those areas which relate to the President’s ability to resist encroachments upon his authority. This usually entails an area of constitutional competence. In the early-1970s, Richard Nixon claimed executive privilege over the White House tapes during the Watergate scandal.

Executive That branch of government tasked with the responsibility of carrying out (i.e. implementing) decisions. In the US the chief executive is the President. In most political systems the executive is not directly involved in the making of laws. Indeed, in some political systems the chief executive is not even involved in the execution (or implementation) of laws at all (as in the case of the President of the Republic of Ireland).