Paradox of voting The question of why citizens vote even though their individual choice stands little chance of changing the election outcome. The paradox of voting bears relevance to the phenomenon of safe seats.

Partisan de-alignment Where voters lose their sense of attachment to a particular party. The term may be related to class de-alignment. It reflects a weakening of the party identification model of voting behavior. One reason for partisan de-alignment is the increased importance of ‘check-book’ voting, in which the state of the economy plays a key role.

Party coalitions Those groups who identify with a political party, usually described in demographic terms.

Party identification A citizen’s loyalty to a specific political party. Partisan de-alignment reflects a decline in party identification.

Party in government The group of office holders who belong to a specific political party and were elected as candidates of that party.

Party in power Under unified government, the party that controls the House, Senate, and the presidency. Under divided government, it is usually the President’s party.

Party in the electorate The group of citizens who identify with a specific political party. Angus Campbell and others (1980) argued that partisanship serves as a filter. A partisan therefore filters out facts inconsistent with the party’s worldview, and exaggerates those facts which would appear to confirm it.

Party organization A specific political party’s leaders and workers at the national, state, and local levels.

Party platform A set of objectives outlining the party’s issue positions and priorities—although candidates are not required to support their party’s platform. A platform is not a manifesto in the traditional sense of the term.

Party ratio The proportions of seats in the House and Senate that are controlled by each major party.

Party unity The extent to which members of Congress in the same party vote together on party votes. This may be influenced by the level of ideological polarization within the nation’s legislature.

Party votes A vote in which the majority of one party opposes the position of the majority of the other party.

Patriotism Love for one’s country. As is widely known, Americans have a strong sense of patriotism. Each day begins in American schools with children facing the flag and reciting the pledge of allegiance (“I pledge allegiance to the flag of the United States of America and to the Republic for which it stands, one nation, under God, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all”). Many people raise the flag outside their homes and there is of course a Flag Day.

Peanut butter politics The method of spreading government money around from one state/district to the next. The term is used in a pejorative sense to imply government waste and pork-barrel politics.

Permanent campaign The actions officeholders take throughout the election cycle to build support for their re-election. The term holds more relevance for those elected to the House as opposed to the upper chamber.

Permissive federalism Where the states are permitted to exercise those powers which the national government permits them to exercise. It is usually associated with a unitary system of governance.

Philadelphia convention The convention held from May to September 1787 that framed our Constitution. The delegates decided to replace the Articles of Confederation with a codified constitution for the new Republic. The need for a new constitution derived from the need for a stronger system. The Philadelphia convention was presided over by George Washington.

Phone banks Groups of organized supporters who contact likely voters by phone to encourage electoral support for their party or candidate.

Picket fence federalism A form of cooperative federalism in which policy-makers within a particular policy area work together across multiple levels of government.

Plebiscitary president One who rules through aggressive assertions of executive independence, direct appeals to the public via the media and active manipulation of public opinion. This kind of presidency lays specific emphasis on the rhetorical prowess of the individual sitting in or seeking the office. A leading illustration would be George W. Bush, principally in the context of post-9/11. The term does not hold the same level of currency as the imperial-imperiled debate.

Pluralism Where a variety of beliefs, demands and interests are permitted to flourish together. Pluralism is a key concept within a liberal democracy. The United States has a relatively pluralist political system with numerous points of influence. Pressure groups therefore operate at all levels of government – federal, state and local – and are able to influence all three branches of government. In a pluralist society pressure groups should be able to perform their proper role unfettered by the government. However, even in the US some pressure groups are subject to constraint. This might be due to the extremist stance adopted by that particular group.

Plurality voting A voting system in which the candidate who receives the most votes within a geographic area wins the election, regardless of whether that candidates wins over half the votes.

Pocket veto The automatic death of a bill passed by Congress when the President fails to sign the bill in the last ten days of a legislative session. A veto can be overridden by a two-thirds vote in both the House and Senate.

Polarized A term describing the alignment of both parties’ members with their own party’s issues and priorities, with little cross-over support for the other party’s goals.

Police patrol oversight A method of oversight in which members of Congress constantly monitor the bureaucracy to make sure that laws are implemented correctly.

Policy agenda The set of desired policies that political leaders view as their top priorities.

Policy incubators Where a particular locale or state conducts an experiment into a particular law or policy. This is one of the alleged benefits of a federalist system and can range from legalizing marijuana to holding an amnesty on guns in which people can hand over weapons to their local police officer. If the law or policy is successful, it may well spread throughout the union.

Policy mood The level of public support for expanding the government’s role in society; whether the public wants government action on a specific issue.

Political Action Committees (PACs) Political groups that collect money from their members in order to fund candidates and parties who advance/defend their particular interests. The purpose of a PAC is simply to raise campaign funds. There are strict limits set upon how much money can be raised by an individual PAC. Some states also have limits on how much a PAC can give to a candidate. However, there is no limit to the number of PACs that can support a candidate. As such, candidates can gain the support of several PACs and in doing so raise a great deal of campaign finance.

Political appointees People appointed by an elected leader, such as the President, to hold a government position. Political appointments in the states are based on the spoils system.

Political business cycle Attempts by elected officials to manipulate the economy, increasing economic growth and reducing unemployment and inflation around election time. This can only be achieved via manipulation of fiscal policy. Monetary policy is set by an independent central bank.

Political culture Those norms and values that predominate within a particular society. Political culture in the US emphasizes democracy and public participation within the political process (Almond and Verba, 1963 and 1980). It is focused upon individualism, liberty, limited government and the American Dream. In addition, political culture differs greatly from the liberal North East/Pacific Coast to the more conservative southern states (notably the Bible Belt).

Political honeymoon The period in which the political capital of the newly-elected President is at its greatest. The first one hundred days is often seen as the President’s political honeymoon. This is when the President sets the tone of his administration. However, one could argue that the three months or so before the President is sworn in holds greater significance. In the case of Obama a wide number of presidential-level decisions were decided upon before he became Head of State. The future course of a presidency can be determined to a very significant degree by decisions and events that lie outside of his control.

Political machine An unofficial patronage system within a political party that seeks to gain political power and government contracts, jobs and other benefits for party workers and supporters. This can of course lead to corruption.

Political socialization The means by which we acquire political beliefs and attitudes. Agents of socialization include the family, religion, peer groups, the media and education. An understanding of political socialization is relevant towards the whole area of voting behavior.

Popular sovereignty Where the people hold ultimate authority and the political system enables the demos to elect representatives to act on their behalf. In the US, the political system is based upon constitutional sovereignty.  However, it could also be argued that sovereignty lies with the people. This point is particularly relevant in the context of an election. It also applies in an indirect manner via their elected representatives.

Popular vote The votes cast by citizens in an election. It is possible for a presidential candidate to win the popular vote but lose the EC vote.

Pork-barrel politics A reference to a situation in which members of Congress seek federal funds in order to please their constituents. This is motivated by self-interest, in that it enables incumbents to secure re-election. The term has a negative connotation.

Position taking Any public statement in which a politician makes their views known on an issue of public interest. Pressure groups will seek to highlight these positions in order to attract or deter potential voters.

Positive rights Those rights than enable an individual to actually do something, such as the right to bear arms as laid down in the second amendment. The term is linked to the concept of positive liberty.

Poverty trap Where families and individuals find it difficult to escape a life of poverty due to a lack of life chances, prejudice within society or the welfare system itself. Millions of Americans are affected by the poverty trap despite the prevalent myth that anyone can make it in the land of opportunity.

Power of the purse The constitutional power of Congress to raise and spend money. Congress can use this power as a check upon the executive.

Precedent A legal norm established in court cases that is then applied to future cases dealing with the same legal questions. Precedent derives from a test case.

President of the United States The Head of State, the chief diplomat, the chief legislator and the commander-in-chief of the US military. The President must be a natural-born American citizen. He must also be over thirty-five years old and meet the residency qualification of fourteen years.

President pro tempore A largely symbolic position usually held by the most senior member of the majority party in the Senate. The President of the Senate is the vice-president.

Presidential approval The percentage of Americans who feel that the president is doing a good job in office.

Presidential caucuses A series of meetings designed to appoint that party’s candidate. Caucuses are attended by a wholly unrepresentative sample of voters. Iowa for instance is more conservative – and more religious – than the average American state. It also gives voters in Iowa a massively disproportionate influence upon the contest for that party’s nomination (which in 2016 went to Hillary Clinton and Ted Cruz). There are far more primaries held than caucuses. Please be aware that some states use both. It is also worth noting that some states require voters to show ID, which can be a barrier towards the less well-off from voting.

Presidential legacy That which the President will be remembered for. His legacy is often determined in the realm of foreign policy, an arena in which he has much greater scope than he does in the domestic sphere. To take one example, George W. Bush’s legacy derives primarily from the actions of US troops in Iraq and Afghanistan.

Presidential primacy Where the President takes the dominant role over foreign policy. This may be based upon a number of factors, such as his constitutional powers and the need for quick decisions in the face of a threat to national security. The parochial character of Congress (particularly the House) is another factor.

Presidential primary A state-based election to choose a party’s candidate for the Head of State. A presidential primary is essentially an indirect election to decide the number of delegates from that particular state. Primaries take place for all levels of government, although the media focus tends to gravitate towards the race for the presidency. As they operate under state law a number of variations exist on the issue of timing, whether to allow participation via the Internet, what type of primary to hold and whether a voter is asked to declare their party affiliation. An incumbent President can even face a challenge from within his own party (as in the case of Gerald Ford in 1976 and Jimmy Carter in 1980). During the early primaries, the party base often flirts with their preferred candidate before shifting towards a moderate candidate capable of winning. Generally speaking, figures such as Rick Santorum (R) in 2012 and Howard Dean in 2004 (D) are eventually eclipsed by more electable candidates.

Press conference Events at which politicians speak to journalists and answer their questions afterward.

Prime time That time of the evening when the television audience is at its highest and networks often schedule news programs. Advertising during prime time requires a significant amount of dollars.

Priming The influence on the public’s general impressions of a candidate or issue caused by positive or negative coverage. For instance, Romney tried to neutralize some of the negatives associated with his brand during the 2012 campaign (such as his reputation as a flip-flopper and his links to venture capitalism).

Principal–agent game The interaction between a principal (like the President or Congress), who needs something done, and an agent (like a bureaucrat), who is responsible for carrying out the principal’s orders.

Prior restraint A limit on freedom of the press that allows the government to prohibit the media from publishing certain materials. This is usually on the basis of national security.

Privacy rights Liberties protected by several amendments in the Bill of Rights that shield certain personal aspects of citizens’ lives from governmental interference, such as the fourth amendment’s protection against unreasonable searches and seizures. Our right to privacy has been curtailed by the official authorities in order to deal with the threat of terrorism and crime.

Privatization The transfer of assets from the public sector to the private sector. This policy forms a key element of the New Right perspective. It has been a marked feature of the period defined by Richard Nixon and others as new federalism.

Privileges and immunities clause That part of the Constitution requiring states to treat non-state residents within their borders as they would treat their own residents. This is meant to promote commerce and travel between the various states.

Problem of control A difficulty faced by elected officials in ensuring that when bureaucrats implement policies, they follow these officials’ intentions but still have enough discretion to use their expertise. The problem of control is one of the major obstacles facing decision-makers in office.

Progressive taxation Those taxes that require upper-income people to pay a higher tax rate than lower-income people. Obvious examples include income tax and an estate tax.

Proportional allocation The practice of determining the number of convention delegates allotted to each candidate based on the percentage of the popular vote cast for each candidate.

Proportional primaries Where candidates must receive a minimum percentage of votes (usually a 15% threshold) in order to gain delegates. Most primaries are now proportional. In 2010 Oregon became the first American state in which a binding primary election was conducted solely via the Internet. The election in question concerned the Independent Party of Oregon; a minor party within the US.

Proposition A mechanism by which American citizens can vote on a change to the existing law. Not all states enable citizens to hold a proposition, and in those that do the legislature can override the proposition (except in California). States also have a sunset clause whereby the decision taken during a proposition is allowed to expire. Propositions enable states to act as a policy incubator, where successful ideas tend to spread throughout the nation.

Public choice theory A theory which stipulates that the various agents of the state pursue their own particular interests at the expense of the common good. This can result in a number of related problems including government overload and regulatory capture. Another problem is that members of the Cabinet ‘go native’ and simply become advocates for their particular departments. The solution often put forward is to treat the people who use public services as customers. Those institutions responsible for the delivery of public services should act like a business and thereby use taxpayers’ money in the most efficient manner possible. Public choice theory is located on the right of the political spectrum.

Public goods Services or actions (such as protecting the environment) that – once provided to one person – become available to everyone. Government is typically needed to provide public goods because they will be under-produced by the free market. The profit motive works against the provision of public goods.

Public opinion Citizens’ views on politics and government actions. A number of organizations collate public opinion and publish their findings.

Purposive benefits Satisfaction derived from the experience of working toward a desired policy goal, even if the goal is not achieved. This may explain why people join pressure groups and political parties.

Push polling A type of survey in which the questions are presented in a biased way in an attempt to influence the respondent. It is also known as a leading question.