Racism A negative and hostile view of an individual/group based on racial prejudice leading to abusive and aggressive actions. The aim of affirmative action in regards to ethnic minorities is to counter the effects of racism within society. Race has long been a divisive issue within American society.

Raiders Supporters of an opposing party who participate in an open primary in order to keep a weak candidate in the race.

Random digit dialing A method of random sampling used in telephone surveys, in which the interviewers call respondents by dialing random telephone numbers in order to include those with unlisted numbers. This is to ensure a truly representative sample is considered.

Random sample Those chosen to participate in a survey through a selection process in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen. This kind of sampling improves the accuracy of public opinion data.

Ranked choice voting Otherwise known as the Alternative Vote outside of America, this electoral method is used in some mayoral contests. The term instant runoff voting may also be used.

Reaganomics A set of economic policies associated with Ronald Reagan. Like Thatcherism in the UK, Reaganomics was the name given to those policies shaped by the New Right such as de-regulation, privatization and the promotion of a flexible labor force. Reaganomics changed the political agenda within the United States and had a major impact upon new Democrats.

Re-alignment A change in the size or composition of the party coalitions or in the nature of the issues that divide the parties. Re-alignments typically occur within an election cycle or two, but they can also occur gradually over the course of a decade or longer.

Realism The idea that a country’s foreign policy decisions are motivated by self-interest and the goal of gaining more power.

Reasonable basis test The use of evidence to suggest that differences in the behavior of two groups can rationalize unequal treatment of these groups.

Reasonable vote A vote that is likely to be consistent with the voter’s true preference about the candidates. The term may be contrasted with tactical voting.

Recall election A procedure that enables voters in a state to remove an elected official from office before their term has expired. They are only permissible in certain states, and can be difficult to push through due to a number of legal and practical barriers. As such, they are something of a blunt instrument in terms of ensuring that those in power are held to account. However, even the prospect of a recall election may lead to a more responsive approach from elected representatives. The true significance of a recall election might therefore be in its potential threat. Whilst recall elections are rarely used, they do serve to heighten the level of democratic accountability within the United States.

Recess appointments Where the President can make an appointment to a branch of government (including the Supreme Court) without the immediate consent of the Senate. This applies to only a small number of cases. As the term clearly implies, it can only be done when Congress is in recess. However, the Senate must eventually approve of the appointment. One example would be the position of Ambassador.

Reciprocity The informal congressional norm whereby a member votes for a bill that he might not otherwise support because a colleague strongly favors it—in exchange for the colleague’s vote for a bill that the member feels strongly about.

Redistributive tax policies Those policies by which taxation is used to attempt to create greater social equality or some form of social justice.

Re-districting Redrawing the geographic boundaries of legislative districts.

Referendum A direct vote by citizens on a policy change proposed by a legislature or another government body. While referenda are common in state and local elections, there is no mechanism for a national-level referendum. It is possible to hold a non-binding referendum (as in the case of Puerto Rico in 2012).

Regional primaries A practice whereby several states in the same area of the country hold presidential primaries or caucuses on the same day.

Regressive taxation A term describing taxes that take a larger share of poor people’s income than wealthy people’s income. Examples include a sales tax and a payroll tax. The term may be contrasted with progressive taxation.

Regulation State intervention in the economy for the purpose of minimizing the impact of market failure. After decades of de-regulation, Obama has managed to tighten up regulation of Wall Street in response to the credit crunch.

Regulatory capture A situation in which a regulatory agency created to act in the public interest acts in favor of the commercial/special interests that dominate in the industry (or sector) it is charged with regulating. It is sometimes known as agency capture.

Religious right Those figures and pressure groups campaigning over a wide range of issues ranging from stem-cell research to creationist teaching within schools. The religious right seeks to mix religious fervor with a political message. The religious right calls itself the pro-family movement and provides the bedrock of ‘values voters’ – a vitally important constituency for the Republican Party. It also enables the GOP to reach out beyond their natural constituency. For instance, a number of Catholic voters were drawn to the Christian message promoted by George W. Bush. The religious right plays a prominent role within American politics. Churches will publish the voting record and speeches of political candidates and instruct their followers to vote a certain way. The religious right seeks to promote religious prayer in state schools and is passionately opposed to abortion.

Remedial legislation National laws that address discriminatory state laws. Authority for such legislation comes from the fourteenth amendment.

Republican democracy A form of government in which the interests of the people are represented through elected leaders. The US could be described as a republican democracy.

Republican Party A broadly conservative political party and one of the two main parties. Their voters are (stereo)typically male, live in rural areas, are regular church-goers, wealthy, white and elderly. A Republican usually adopts a pro-life, pro-gun stance with a preference for traditional values.

Republicanism The belief that a form of government in which the interests of the people are represented through elected leaders is the best form of government.

Resemblance theory The notion that those in the legislature should be typical of the communities they serve. In doing so, it is claimed they can more fully reflect their constituents. Having said this, members of the legislature can be effective representatives without being socially representative.

Reserved powers Those powers retained by a particular level of government. For instance, the tenth amendment relates to those powers reserved for the states.

Responsible parties A system in which candidates campaign on the party platform, work together in office to implement the platform, and are judged by voters based on whether they achieve the platform’s objectives. Given the weak nature of party labels, this is rarely applied in the states.

Retail politics A mode of campaigning in which a candidate or campaign staff contact citizens directly. This may occur during a rally or a talk beforehand to a small group. It may even entail a one-on-one meeting between a candidate and a citizen.

Retrospective evaluation A citizen’s judgment of an officeholder’s job performance since the last election. This may well be based upon their financial position.

Revenue neutral Where a scheme or proposal raises no more in taxation than is raised under the present situation.

Revolving door syndrome Where former members of Congress (or the executive) take up well-paid jobs within lobby groups based in K Street, Washington DC. Their contacts and expertise are used in order to benefit that particular lobby group. Former members of Congress (and the executive) can often gain more money from being lobbyists than they ever could as elected representatives. The very phrase refers to the fact that one door closes whilst another door opens.

Riders An attachment to a proposed piece of legislation. The use of riders is customary within Congress and there are no limitations on their use. Riders are more effective when attached to an important bill because to veto or postpone such a bill would delay funding to government programs. The President must accept those riders or reject the bill entirely. The use of riders is often viewed negatively by the public as an example of congressional misuse of taxpayers’ money.

Rights An entitlement held by an individual/group and one related to the idea of responsibilities or duties. For example the right to life involves a duty (or responsibility) not to take away another person’s right to life. If you do end someone’s life, you will have your rights and freedoms taken away. Many (though by no means all) states implement the death penalty. There are many different types of rights to consider within political discourse such as positive rights, legal rights, negative rights and moral rights.

Robo-poll A type of survey in which a computer program, rather than a live questioner, interviews respondents by telephone.

Rogue electors A member of the Electoral College who fails to cast his/her vote for the candidate they were pledged to elect. They are also known as a faithless elector. For example, in the year 2000 Barbara Lett-Simmons abstained rather than give the Democrat candidate Al Gore the Electoral College votes of Washington DC.

Roll call A recorded vote on legislation. Congressional members may vote yes, no, abstain or present. The latter is used to evade an unpopular choice, rather than targeted by interest groups for saying no.

Rotunda A place located directly below the dome of Congress which connects the two chambers. In the rotunda various members of Congress might engage in informal contact with constituents, the press and each other. It can also be used for ceremonial occasions of national significance.