De facto Where authority exists in practical terms rather than in law. For example, the President has the de facto ability to set the foreign policy agenda. However, in a de jure sense there is a degree of shared authority between the legislature and the executive. This distinction underlines Neustadt’s claim that the Constitution created “separated institutions sharing powers.” The phrase relates to the actions or circumstances that occur outside the law or by fact, such as the segregation of schools that results from housing patterns and other non-legal factors.

De jure Relating to actions or circumstances that occur by law, such as the legally enforced segregation of schools in the American South before the Brown ruling.

De-alignment A decline in the percentage of citizens who identify with one of the major parties, usually over the course of a decade or longer. 1968 for instance was a de-alignment election, marking the collapse of the New Deal.

Defendant In a court of law, the person or party against whom a case is brought.

Delegates Individuals who attend their party’s national convention and vote to select their party’s nominee for the presidency. Delegates are elected in a series of primaries and caucuses that occur during an election year. Delegates are usually pledged to endorse a particular candidate, although there are a small number of unpledged delegates. In a tight contest, unpledged delegates can wield considerable bargaining power.

Democracy A political system based on the exercise of people power. The term derives from the Greek words “demos” (meaning common people) and “kratia” (meaning power). The term liberal or indirect is often applied before democracy in order to broaden its meaning. There is great diversity within the states in terms of how democracy operates. The town hall tradition is to be found in rural New England, whereas in California there is a notable reliance upon initiatives. Some states award greater power to the governor than others, and so on.

Democrat Party A broadly liberal party and one of the two main parties in the United States. Their voter is (stereo)typically young, female, lives in an urban area and is non-white.

Democratic deficit A reference to the undemocratic elements of American politics. For instance, incumbent Senators may arrive into the chamber solely by the appointment of the state governor. Whilst this is technically constitutional, it is clearly open to nepotism and corruption (as in the case of the Illinois state governor Rod Blagojevich who asked for financial donations from anyone wishing to be appointed). The role of powerful insider groups could also be considered here, as well as the role played by conference committees who reach decisions in secret.

Democratic overload A reference to the relatively high number of elections held in the United States. There is a much greater propensity for elections to be held in the US than in many other comparable democracies. It is widely believed that democratic overload contributes towards voter fatigue.

Demographic trends Population changes and developments over a given period of time. If present trends continue white people will eventually be in the minority by the middle of the 21^st century.

Demonstration A mass public movement to show support for a particular cause or position. It is often said in politics that those who make the most noise have the least impact.

Dependency culture A term associated with New Right theorists such as Charles Murray, Grover Norquist and Irving Kristol who argue that the welfare state undermines individual responsibility and effectively traps claimants into the benefits system with little or no incentive to escape. The dependency culture argument had a major impact upon welfare policy during the 1980s and 90s.

Descriptive representation A scenario in which a congressional member shares the characteristics of his or her constituents. The term bears relevance to majority-minority districts and in the broader sense the resemblance model of representation.

Détente An approach to foreign policy in which cultural exchanges and negotiations are used to reduce tensions between rival nations, such as between the United States and the Soviet Union during the 1970s. By the end of that decade, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan.

Dickey amendment Where federal funds are banned from research in which human embryos are destroyed. The term derives from the bill’s sponsor; congressmen Jay Dickey of Arkansas.

Diplomacy The process of negotiation on international issues between national leaders. It should be acknowledged that America wields a great deal of so-called soft power.

Direct action Those activities usually undertaken by outsider pressure groups in order to promote their cause or message. Direct action is often illegal and is regularly cited as one example of how pressure groups undermine democracy. However, direct action can in the long-run enhance democracy. Direct action is associated with extremists from both the left and right of the political spectrum.

Direct democracy Where the will of the people is directly translated into public policy. Direct democracy consists of government “by the people” and can be thought of as the absence of an election. In the US, propositions are the clearest illustration of direct democracy. The Constitution makes no mention of direct democracy, reflecting the fear amongst the founding fathers of mob rule.

Direct incitement test A test which protects threatening speech under the first amendment unless that speech aims to and is likely to cause imminent action of a lawless character. It relates to the assumption within a democratic society that we hold freedom and speech provided that we pose no harm to the freedom of others. The assumption reflects the so-called harm principle of John Stuart Mill and was established in Brandenberg v. Ohio (1969).

Direct lobbying Attempts by interest group staff to influence policy by speaking with elected officials or bureaucrats. The Honest Leadership and Open Government Act (2007) seeks to place some limitations upon the activities of lobbyists.

Discretionary spending Expenditures that can be cut from the budget without changing the underlying law. The term may be contrasted with entitlement spending.

Disenfranchised To have been denied the ability to exercise a right of some description; perhaps on the basis of gender or ethnicity. Critics claim that voter ID requirements in Republican-held states are designed to disenfranchise African Americans and Hispanics, as too is support amongst some politicians for self-deportation.

Disparate impact standard The notion that discrimination exists if a practice has a negative impact upon a specific group. Discrimination does not have to be intended in order for it to be classed as discrimination.

Distributive theory The theory that members of Congress will join committees that best serve the interests of their district, and that committee members will support each other’s legislation. Distribute theory reflects the assumption that members will seek to provide what ‘the folks want back home.’

District courts Lower level trial courts of the federal judicial system. District courts handle most federal cases.

Divided government When the party in control of Congress differs to that of the President. Divided government has become the norm in recent years. One of the reasons for the increased propensity for divided government is the willingness of the American people to vote on a split-ticket basis. The existence of staggered elections also makes it difficult for one party to maintain control of the House, the Senate and the presidency.

Docket A calendar listing of cases that have been submitted to the attention of a court.

Doctrine of interposition The idea that if the national government passes an unconstitutional law, the people themselves can declare the law null and void. Such action would conventionally occur through their state legislatures, although militia groups may also be considered. It could also be used to justify the need for the second amendment.

Domino theory An assumption held during the cold war that the creation of a Communist nation would lead to the spread of Communism in that particular region of the world. In the contemporary era, domino theory could conceivably be applied to American attempts to prevent the spread of Islamic fundamentalism.

Donor do-gooders Those who use their wealth to promote good causes. The term tends to be associated with those who provide money to liberal pressure groups and the Democrats.

Double jeopardy Being tried for the same crime twice. The fifth amendment seeks to prevent double jeopardy.

Dual federalism The form of federalism in which national and state governments are seen as distinct entities providing separate services. This approach seeks to limit the power of the federal government in the nation’s capital.

Due process clause A key element of the fourteenth amendment that forbids states from denying “life, liberty or property” to any person without a fair trial. A near identical clause in the fifth amendment applies solely to the national government. Due process can at times ensure that a constitutional right cannot be infringed by state or local governments. Due process can therefore be applied to protect rights that would please either side of the ideological divide. Conservatives were pleased that an individual’s right to bear arms was upheld via the due process clause in the case of McDonald v. City of Chicago (2010). Similarly, liberals have welcomed a number of rulings designed to enhance the rights of minorities (such as Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)).

Due process rights The idea that laws and legal proceedings must be fair. Specific due process rights are found in the fourth, fifth, sixth and eighth amendments. Due process has at times been undermined during the war on terror.

Duverger’s law The principle that in a democracy with single-member districts and plurality voting only two parties’ candidates will have a realistic chance of winning political office. The law holds obvious resonance to the duopoly that characterizes the states.