Sample That group of people surveyed in order to gauge popular opinion. Researchers use samples because it would be impossible to interview the entire population.

Sampling error A calculation that describes what percentage of the people surveyed may not accurately represent the population being studied. All representative samples contain a sampling error of some kind.

Scopes trial A famous case study of the role of religion and the rights of states. Scopes was a Tennessee teacher who was prosecuted for violating a state law that forbade teaching of Darwinism. The case gained nationwide attention, and although John Scopes was found guilty, the verdict was overturned on appeal.

Scrutiny The means by which the executive is held to account, usually by the legislature. This is an important aspect of a liberal democracy such as the US. Famous examples include the Fulbright committee into Vietnam and the Levin committee into the war on terror. However, no figure exemplifies the observation that scrutiny can make or break a career more than Richard Nixon. His work on the House Committee on Un-American Activities in exposing Alger Hiss (who had served in FDR’s administration) as a former member of the American Communist Party established Nixon as a rising star within the Republican Party. When he later became President, congressional scrutiny into Watergate effectively ended his occupancy of the White House.

Seat shift A change in the number of seats held by Republicans and Democrats in the House or Senate. This may result in one party taking control from the other (as in 2010 when the GOP beat the Democrats for control of the lower chamber).

Select committees Those committees in the House or Senate created to address a specific issue for one or two terms. The main work of Congress occurs in committees.

Selective incentives Benefits that can motivate participation in a group effort because they are available only to those who participate, such as member services offered by interest groups.

Selective incorporation The process through which the civil liberties granted in the Bill of Rights were applied to the states on a case-by case basis through the fourteenth amendment.

Senatorial courtesy Where a President confers with a Senator before he makes a nomination to fill a vacancy for a federal office affecting that state. This is a norm in the nomination of district court judges in which the president consults with his party’s senators from the relevant state in choosing the nominee.

Seniority The informal congressional norm of choosing the member who has served the longest on a particular committee to be the committee chair. It is hard to get things done in DC without some level of seniority, or support from senior members. Powerful figures on the Hill often claim to speak on behalf of a wide number of congressmen.

Separate but equal The idea that racial segregation was acceptable as long as the separate facilities were of equal quality. This was supported by Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) but struck down by Brown v. Board of Education (1954).

Separation of powers Where each branch of government is independent of the other and no-one can be a member of more than one branch at the same time. In the US, the separation of powers also entails the separation of personnel. Amongst the founding fathers, Thomas Jefferson was an instrumental figure behind the separation of powers. The separation of powers is deeply reflective of liberal values. Richard Neustadt once observed that the American system entails “separated institutions, sharing powers.” This is a much more accurate and useful depiction; although it is less widely used.

Sexism Negative or hostile attitudes expressed towards a particular gender. Feminists seek to liberate women from the boundaries imposed by a sexist society. Some populist figures on the right such as Ann Coulter and Rush Limbaugh claim that feminists (or ‘feminazis’) have gone too far.

Shield laws Legislation, which exists in some states but not at the federal level that gives reporters the right to refuse to name the source(s) of their information.

Shuttle diplomacy Negotiations carried out by a third party mediator who travels between two nations to relay information when those two nations’ negotiators refuse to meet face-to-face. This may be the result of a political/ideological conflict.

Signing statements Those statements put forward by the President in which he outlines his understanding of the legislation, and by implication suggests how the executive branch should implement it. Signing statements are usually published at the same time as the President signs a bill into law. Members of Congress sometimes view such statements as an attempt by the President to undermine the authority of the legislative assembly. The document often differs from the interpretation offered by Congress, and may be seen as an attempt to influence how the law will be implemented.

Single-issue groups A type of pressure group that has a narrowly focused goal, seeking change on a single topic or piece of legislation.

Single-member districts An electoral system in which every elected official represents a geographically defined area, such as a state or congressional district, and each area elects one representative. Single-member districts are associated with majoritarian voting systems.

Slander Spoken false statements that damage a person’s reputation. Such statements can be regulated by the government but are often difficult to distinguish from permissible speech.

Slant The imbalance in a story that covers one candidate or policy favorably without providing similar coverage of the other side. The term should be considered alongside that of media bias.

Social class Social stratification upon the basis of occupation. Categorizations often used include the underclass, the working class, the middle class and the upper class. Some cities exemplify this division in a very distinct manner, such as New York City and Los Angeles. However, it is probably accurate to state that American society is divided more by race than social class. Society is balkanized along ethnic lines in which one can clearly observe the separation of black/white/Hispanic neighborhoods. Gated communities, ghettos and a propensity to marry within one’s own community are also of relevance here.

Social justice Those attempts made to address the problem of social exclusion and inequality within society. Those on the left are particularly keen to advance this concept, although social justice is by no means limited to the socialist perspective.

Social policy An area of public policy related to maintaining or enhancing the well-being of individuals.

Social security A federal insurance program that provides benefits to retirees based on payroll taxes they have paid over the course of their careers. It is a ‘pay as you go’ system in which working Americans pay taxes to support today’s retirees, with a promise that when today’s workers retire, their benefits will be paid by the next generation. Social security could be seen as an illustration of the Burkean social contract between one generation and the next.

Socialism An ideology on the left of the political spectrum in which equality is prized as the most important objective within society. Socialism could be considered un-American; both historically and in a more narrow ideological sense of Hofstadter’s famous observation. Socialism places equality above liberty, principally equality of outcome; whereas the American Dream is based upon the notion of equality of opportunity. Socialism is therefore incompatible with the idea(l) of America itself.

Soft money Those donations given to politicians for campaign expenses. It is widely seen to be the focus of fraud within American politics, with some critics having described it as a form of legalized bribery. Hard money however goes directly to a candidate of a political party and is regulated by the Federal Election Commission. Of the two, it is soft money which has generated the most controversy. Soft money can be used for voter mobilization or to promote a policy proposal or point of view provided those efforts are not tied to supporting or opposing a candidate. It should also be noted that presidential campaigns are subject to stricter regulation than congressional campaigns.

Soft news Media coverage that aims to entertain or shock, often through sensationalized reporting or by focusing on a candidate or politician’s personality. Many informed commentators claim that the media has become more and more interested in soft news.

Solicitor General A presidential appointee in the Department of Justice who represents the federal government. The Solicitor General is therefore the ‘face’ of the federal government in a court case. Elena Kagan was Solicitor General before accepting a post on the Supreme Court.

Solidary benefits That satisfaction derived from the experience of working with like-minded people, even if the group’s efforts do not achieve the desired impact. This is one reason why people join a pressure group.

Speaker of the House The leader of the House and one tasked with a number of roles such as that of presiding officer, unofficial leader of the majority party and the representative role of an elected member of the lower chamber. The Speaker of the House is third in line to succeed the President after the Vice President. He can be subject to disciplinary procedures, as in the case of Newt Gingrich in the late-1990s. Unlike the Speaker in the British House of Commons, he/she is a partisan player rather than a neutral umpire.

Special needs doctrine Established by a ruling made by the Supreme Court, it enables the official authorities without a warrant to circumvent the fourth amendment where the public are in danger. It therefore places majority rights above those of the individual. It can apply to a range of circumstances from airport screening to dealing with suspected terrorists. The special needs doctrine has gained greater prominence during the war against terror.

Specialization The expertise of a member of Congress on a specific issue or area of policy (such as finance, health care, etc.). Specialization is more common in the House than the Senate.

Split-ticket Where voters divide their support between the two main parties. Americans are well used to the notion of checks and balances, and may therefore perceive there to be a virtue in the inevitable consequences of split-ticket voting (such as divided government).

Spoils system A system by which government jobs are awarded to political supporters rather than solely on the basis of merit. The term derives from the phrase “to the victor belong the spoils.” It can also be applied to rewarding party supporters.

Standard operating procedures Rules that lower-level bureaucrats must follow when implementing policies.

Standing committees Those committees that are a permanent part of the House or Senate structure, holding more importance and authority than other committees.

Stare decisis A legal principle in which judges are obliged to follow the precedent that has already been established. This is an important legal convention.

State capacity The knowledge, personnel and institutions that the government requires in order to effectively implement its policies.

State of the Union address The President’s annual address to Congress in which he outlines his legislative agenda and policy platform. The State of the Union address is the only time the President is allowed to enter the legislative chamber. It is one of the highlights of the American political calendar and is delivered in front of each member of Congress, the Cabinet, the Supreme Court and a viewing audience of millions. The name derives from Article 2 Section 3 of the Constitution.

States’ rights Those rights held by state governments. On the basis of federalism the states hold certain rights in return for honoring their responsibility to recognize the laws of other states and those derived from the federal government. The trend within the contemporary era has been to strengthen the rights of states and thereby curtail the role of federal government. Republicans have been particularly keen to champion states’ rights. Having said this, Republicans have also sought to strengthen federal government in order to deal with the threat of terrorism (e.g. creating the Department of Homeland Security as a response to 9/11). Those who champion states’ right claim that the states should be entitled to a certain amount of self-government free from intervention by the federal government. As conservatives are wont to claim; it was the states that created the federal government. Moreover, the Constitution declares that those powers not held by the federal level are held by the states.

States’ sovereign immunity The notion that state governments cannot be sued in federal court. It therefore offers protection for the tenth amendment.

Statutory authority (presidential) Powers derived from laws enacted by Congress that add to the powers already given to the President in the Constitution.

Statutory interpretation The various methods and tests used by the courts for determining the meaning of a law and applying it to specific situations. The manner in which laws are interpreted is of major political significance.

Straight ticket A ballot on which a voter selects candidates from only one political party. Straight ticket voting is also known as straight party voting.

Street-level bureaucrats Agency employees who directly provide services to the public. Examples include police officers and those who provide welfare services.

Strict construction A way of interpreting the Constitution based on its language alone. Conservatives tend to favor this approach.

Strict scrutiny standard The highest level of scrutiny the courts use when determining whether unequal treatment is justified by the effect of a law. It is applied in all cases involving race. A law that discriminates based on race must be shown to serve some compelling interest in order to be upheld by the courts.

Stupak amendment Where abortions are prevented from being funded by private insurers. The majority of women who have an abortion pay for it privately.

Substantive due process doctrine One interpretation of the due process clause; in this view the Supreme Court has the power to overturn laws that infringe on individual liberties.

Substantive representation When a member of Congress represents constituents’ interests and policy concerns.

Sunshine rules A reference to those changes instigated during the 1970s in order that Congress cast greater light upon its work. The impact of these changes has been largely welcomed because politicians working in secret may well act in an undemocratic manner. Compared to other legislatures, Congress exhibits a relatively high level of openness to the public and the media. However, some of its work occurs behind closed doors.

Super Tuesday That day when a number of states hold their presidential primaries. Super Tuesday tends to involve southern states in which voters are more conservative than the rest of the country. Super Tuesday is one of the key events within the race for the presidential nomination. The contest is often effectively over after Super Tuesday. Terms such as Super-Duper Tuesday and Tsunami Tuesday may also be used.

Super-delegates Members of Congress and party officials selected by their colleagues to be delegates at the party’s presidential nominating convention. Unlike delegates selected in primaries or caucuses, super-delegates are not committed to a particular candidate and can exercise their judgment when deciding how to vote at the convention.

Supermajority The existence of sufficient support within Congress for a party to get their policies through. It does not refer to an actual figure, but around 60% of that particular chamber of Congress is usually considered sufficient. The term means something very different in the context of a constitutional amendment.

Supreme Court The highest court in the land whose role is to interpret and uphold the Constitution. The Supreme Court is independent of the other two branches of government and is located on the northwest corner of Capitol Hill and sits just across the road from Congress. There are nine judges who preside over hearings in the Supreme Court. The current Chief Justice (John Roberts) is a conservative figure and has sought to reduce the number of cases heard by the Court. The President nominates judges but the Senate can reject his nomination. The process is highly politicized. When hearing a case, the Supreme Court will publish a report outlining the reasons for their decision. A report outlining the minority position may also be published. Article 3 Section 1 of the Constitution places judicial power into the one federal court in the land. Below the Supreme Court are 13 Courts of Appeals (known as Circuit Courts). The majority of federal cases begin in the district courts.

Suspension of the rules One way of moving a piece of legislation to the top of the agenda in the House. Debate on the bill is limited, amendments are not allowed and the bill must pass by a two-thirds vote.

Swing states Those states in which both major party candidates stand a good chance of winning (such as Ohio). The term may be contrasted with safe states.